Gyeongbokgung

Gyeongbokgung
경복궁
Gyeongbokgung (2023)
General information
Type	Royal palace (former)
Architectural style	Korean
Town or city	Jongno District, Seoul
Country	South Korea
Coordinates	37°34′43″N 126°58′38″E
Current tenants	National Palace Museum of Korea National Folk Museum of Korea
Opened	1395
Technical details
Floor area	415,800 square metres (4,476,000 sq ft)
Designations
Historic Sites of South Korea
Designated	1963-01-21
Reference no.	117
Website
royal.cha.go.kr/ENG/main/index.do
Korean name
Hangul	경복궁
Hanja	景福宮
Revised Romanization	Gyeongbokgung
McCune–Reischauer	Kyŏngbokkung

Gyeongbokgung (Korean: 경복궁; Hanja: 景福宮; Korean pronunciation: [kjʌŋbok̚k͈uŋ]) is a former royal palace in Seoul, South Korea. It was the first royal palace of the Joseon dynasty, having been established in 1395. It is now one of the most significant tourist attractions in the country.

The palace was among the first landmarks to be established in Seoul. It flourished under the 1418–1450 reign of Sejong the Great, who invented the native Korean script Hangul at the palace. In 1592, amidst the Imjin War, the palace was completely burned down. Plans to repair the palace fell through amidst funding shortages after the war. It would not be restored until the late 19th century, during the reign of the final Joseon king Gojong.

In 1910, Japan colonized Korea. As the palace was a symbol of the Korean monarchy's authority, Japan systematically demolished and altered it. Almost all of its around 500 structures were sold off or demolished. In their place, modern-style buildings like the Government-General of Chōsen Building were established. Even after the 1945 liberation of Korea, the palace remained in much the same state amidst the political turmoil of the division of Korea and 1950–1953 Korean War. Significant efforts to restore the palace began in the 1980s. Since then, the 1990–2010 First Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan and 2008–2045 Second Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan have attempted to restore the palace to its pre-colonial state.

Name

"Gyeongbokgung" means "great blessings palace". The palace and many of its main structures were named by the Korean official Chŏng Tojŏn around the time of the palace's establishment. Chŏng named the palace in the 10th month of 1395 after the final two characters of a poem from the Classic of Poetry: "already drunk on alcohol, already full of virtue, gentlemen will long enjoy your great blessings" (旣醉以酒, 旣飽以德, 君子萬年, 介爾景福).

History

Establishment

See also: History of Seoul

After establishing Joseon in 1392 (Korean calendar), the founding king Taejo (r. 1392–1398) began work in establishing a new capital Hanyang (later called Seoul) for his state. On the 1st day, 9th month of 1394, he established a temporary office (신도궁궐조성도감; 新都宮闕造成都監) dedicated to designing Hanyang and establishing a new palace for it.

Initially, the palace's location was planned to be slightly north of its current location on the site of a Goryeo-era palace now called Namgyŏng Igung (남경 이궁; 南京離宮), but it was decided that the space was too small. The location was finalized by the 9th month of 1394 and construction began on it in the 12th month. Workers were gathered from around the region: 4,500 from west and 5,500 from east Gyeonggi Province, as well as 5,500 from Chungcheong Province. The palace was completed in the 9th month of 1395. The palace's original scale, while smaller and less developed than its later form, is difficult to precisely determine; varying estimates have been provided. Various scholars have claimed that it had 390 rooms (칸), fewer than 400 rooms, or 755 rooms. On the 28th day, 12th month, Taejo and his family moved into the palace. Shortly after the palace's completion, amidst political instability, Joseon's capital was changed to Kaegyŏng (now Kaesong) then back to Hanyang. The palace was abandoned for about ten years.

In 1404, King Taejong (r. 1400–1418) began preparations to return to Hanyang. He had the palace Changdeokgung established, and he resided in that palace in the meantime. In 1406, he began efforts to repair Gyeongbokgung. In 1411, Taejong had a nearby stream Myŏngdangsu (명당수; 明堂水) redirected into the palace, making it a kŭmch'ŏn (palace stream). He also had a pond dug out and in 1412 constructed the pavilion Gyeonghoeru.

Before the Imjin War

Diagram of Gyeongbokgung believed to have been produced before the Imjin War

In 1421, Sejong the Great (r. 1418–1450) made Gyeongbokgung his primary palace. By 1427, he moved out of Changdeokgung entirely and operated out of Gyeongbokgung. Sejong greatly renovated and expanded the palace. It was during Sejong's reign that Gyeongbokgung became fully-fledged and functional. Under Sejong, the palace hosted a number of scientific devices, including the water clock Borugak Jagyeongnu and a facility for producing movable type. In 1443, Sejong established the office Ŏnmunch'ŏng in the palace, which played a role in developing the native Korean script Hangul.

The palace remained in much the same form from Sejong's reign for around a hundred years. In 1461, the office Suridogam (수리도감; 修理都監) was put in charge of maintainining and restoring the palace. The palace experienced a fire on the 15th day, 12th month of 1467. In the 9th month of 1528, the palace was extensively renovated.

On the 14th day, 9th month of 1553, the palace experienced a major fire. The fire destroyed much of the inner palace area (편전; 便殿; p'yŏnjŏn; where the king conducted daily private politics, and 침전; 寢殿; the king's bedchambers). In that area of the palace, only the main hall Geunjeongjeon was left standing. Numerous treasures, books, records, royal seals, clothing, and even horses that had been in the royal family for generations were lost. In the aftermath of the fire, the royal family moved to Changdeokgung. Repairs began in the 3rd month of 1554. They were overseen by a temporary office (대내선수도감; 大內繕修都監). 2,200 soldiers and monks and 1,500 paid workers were mobilized for the effort. Repairs were completed by the 18th day, 9th month of that year.

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  A reproduction of a painting of a 1535 banquet at Geunjeongjeon.
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  A section of a 1550 painting depicting Gyeongbokgung

Destruction and disuse

Gyeongbokgung in the 18th-century map Tosŏngdaejido.

In 1592, during the 1592–1598 Imjin War, Gyeongbokgung and all the other palaces in the city were completely burned down. It is debated who burned down the palaces, as surviving contemporary records are from intellectuals who did not witness the burnings. Various contemporary Korean texts, including the Veritable Records of Seonjo, report hearsay that it was Korean commoners who burned down the palace to destroy palace records. When the Japanese invaders entered the city on the 2nd day, 5th month of that year, Gyeongbokgung was still in tact. Japanese discipline in the city was reportedly initially high, but when they began suffering defeats, they took their frustrations out on the city and locals, burning buildings and killing.

The Korean King Seonjo (r. 1567–1608) had escaped Hanyang before the Japanese entered it. Upon his return to the city in 1593, he stayed in a temporary palace (which later became Deoksugung). The Ch'unch'ugwan researched Gyeongbokgung's past form and history using Joseon's extensive historical records, such as the Uigwe. By 1606, plans had been drawn up for the palace's reconstruction. However, Joseon's economy was still recovering from the devastating war and finances were tight; Gyeongbokgung's reconstruction was indefinitely postponed and the state's resources were mostly focused on rebuilding Changdeokgung. Seonjo's successor King Gwanghaegun (r. 1608–1623) rebuilt Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung and made the palaces Ingyeonggung and Gyeongdeokgung.

For around 270 years afterwards, Gyeongbokgung went mostly unused and undeveloped. Over time, various kings expressed interest in rebuilding the palace, but did not act on this, due to financial restrictions and the other palaces in the city being sufficient. In the 5th month of 1706, King Sukjong (r. 1674–1720) ordered that the palace's walls be repaired. He hosted a banquet for 150 elderly civilians at the palace in the 9th month of 1706. King Yeongjo (r. 1724–1776) took a particular interest in the palace. He researched its history and saw its symbolic value. He stored various spirit tablets there and held ancestral rituals (진작례; 進爵禮; chinjangnye). He also held a number of ceremonies at the palace. The first such event was in 1747. The next event he held was in 1763, and thereafter many more followed. He hosted the gwageo (civil service examinations) at the palace at least 17 times.

There are a number of contemporary poems about literati visiting the ruins of the palace and appreciating the nature of the site, which had forests and flowers. On the 18th day, 12th month of 1813, there was a fire in a Sujeongjeon annex building.

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  A painting of the palace's ruins in the mid-18th century. Gyeonghoeru's ruins can be seen to the left.
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  A painting of Yeongjo hosting a banquet on the former site of Geunjeongjeon at the palace (1767)
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  A painting of a stylized representation of the palace ruins during one of Yeongjo's events (1747).

Reconstruction

On the 2nd day, 4th month of 1865, Queen Sinjeong, regent of the final Joseon monarch King Gojong (r. 1864–1907), ordered that the palace be reconstructed. The following day, the government department Yŏnggŏndogam (영건도감) was established to manage the reconstruction. Construction began on the 13th day of that month. The queen delegated supervision of the reconstruction to Gojong's father, the Heungseon Daewongun, who went on to wield the monarchy's actual power for years afterwards. In this role, the Daewongun was able to consolidate his authority. Michael Kim evaluated the palace's construction as controversial amongst the elite, who criticized the expense of the project. The Daewongun tried to build enthusiasm for it. Records indicate that he went as far as to manufacture a positive omen: he had a piece of jade engraved with a message that warded off fire "discovered" at the construction site.

Historian Lee Gyu-cheol evaluated the construction effort as one of the largest and most expensive of the late Joseon period. Funding was procured through "voluntary payment" (원납전; 願納錢) from mostly yangban (upper class) people from around Korea; such payments were actually mostly explicitly or implicitly coerced or rewarded with government benefits or later compensation. Resources also needed to be procured, ideally cost-effectively, for the reconstruction. Various structures that were deemed non-essential in and around Hanyang were demolished and their materials recycled for the palace. For example, on the 9th day, 5th month of 1865, a stone bridge called Songgyegyo (송계교; 松溪橋) was demolished for this reason. In the 8th month of 1865, it was ordered that all buildings except for five in Gyeonghuigung be demolished so that their materials could be used to reconstruct Gyeongbokgung. Gyeonghuigung ceased to be significantly used thereafter. During the time of the palace's neglect, commoners had built houses and buildings right next to the palace walls. On the 12th day, 4th month of 1865, the first order to demolish such houses was issued. More demolitions were ordered in the following year. The monarchy demolished 4,502 private homes (1,872 with tile roofs and 2,553 with thatched roofs) around the palace during the reconstruction and paid compensation to those affected. The compensation was scaled according to estimated material value of the houses. Some estates were perceived to be so valuable that they were paid out many times the default payment, with one receiving a payment 450 times the default.

A total of 616,114 people either volunteered (원부군; 願赴軍) or were implicitly coerced by their superiors to construct the palace, with most working on the first few months of construction. On the 25th day, 4th month of 1865, there were reportedly 36,479 volunteers present at the construction site, with most being residents of Seoul. There are accounts of high spirits and regional pride at the construction sites; workers showed off their hometowns and affiliations with flags and uniforms, and the government provided amenities such as traditional music and entertainment while they worked. Accommodations, food, and travel reimbursement were provided, especially to those who came from far away.

Ten fires broke out during the reconstruction. Major ones occurred in the 3rd month of 1866 and 2nd month of 1867. The fires damaged small parts of the palace, but mostly destroyed much of the wood and woodworking facilities needed for the construction and caused delays. In 1866, the French expedition to Korea occurred, in which French ships attacked Joseon in retaliation for the execution of French missionaries. This was the first military conflict on Korean soil in over 200 years. It caused disruptions to labor and the shipping of materials for the palace. Geunjeongjeon and Sajeongjeon, which were constructed during this time, took around twice as long to build time compared to other similar buildings.

Gojong and the royal family moved into the palace on the 2nd day, 7th month of 1868. Construction continued until 1873. For example, at the time of his move-in, the palace's surrounding walls were temporary and made of mud; these were later replaced with permanent stone walls. In 1887, the first electric light in Korea was turned on in Gyeongbokgung.

The palace experienced a major fire on the 10th day, 12th month of 1873 that destroyed 364 rooms. Ten days later, Gojong moved to Changdeokgung. Reconstruction efforts were continually pushed back due to financial and resource restrictions. It was not until the 27th day, 3rd month of 1875 that reconstruction began. He returned to Gyeongbokgung on the 27th day, 5th month of that year, and repairs concluded on the 3rd day, 6th month. However, on the 4th day, 11th month of 1876, another major fire broke out. It caused more than twice as much damage as its predecessor, destroying 830 rooms. Gojong was exasperated by the fires, and began planning to relocate to Changdeokgung. Five days later, he ordered that Changdeokgung and Changgyeonggung be repaired instead. He continued to stay in Gyeongbokgung for another four months during the repairs, then moved to Changdeokgung. Reconstruction on Gyeongbokgung began in 1881. Gojong did not return to Gyeongbokgung until 1884. Reconstruction was finally completed in 1888. More fires broke out, with one in an annex to Taewonjeon on the 19th day, 11th month of 1891 and another at Cheonchujeon on the 13th day, 10th month of 1892. Gojong moved back into Gyeongbokgung on the 24th day, 5th month of 1894.

Meanwhile, the palace and Korea experienced significant political turmoil. The failed Kapsin Coup occurred at the palace in 1884. In 1894, amidst a truce during the 1894–1895 Donghak Peasant Revolution, Japanese troops stormed and occupied the palace and installed a pro-Japanese government. This set off the First Sino-Japanese War. In 1895, the Korean Queen Min was assassinated by Japanese agents at Geoncheonggung in the palace. The assassins also looted the palace during the attack. Afterwards, Gojong fled to the Russian legation for protection in 1896.

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  The palace in 1886
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  An electric light in Geoncheonggung (1901)
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  Print of Japanese troops storming Gyeongbokgung (1894)

Korean Empire period

Rather than return to Gyeongbokgung, where Min had been assassinated, Gojong chose to make Gyeongungung (later called "Deoksugung") his primary residence for its proximity to various foreign legations, which he believed could help protect him from Japan. He then declared the establishment of the Korean Empire. Thereafter, Gyeongbokgung was not significantly used by Gojong, although the royal family continued using it for several ceremonies. It fell into disrepair. A fire broke out in the palace on the 21st day, 9th month of 1899, destroying facilities for court ladies and servants. Gojong ordered maintenance on the palace in 1900, 1904, and 1907. However, after 1905, Japan began indirectly ruling Korea, and repairs were subject to approval by the Japanese Resident-General of Korea. Furthermore, Gojong was forced to abdicate in lieu of his son, Sunjong. Sunjong began to use Changdeokgung as his main palace.

In 1907, even before annexing Korea, Japan made Gyeongbokgung into a public park. The palace was opened to the public on March 3, 1908. It was open to the public for an admission fee of 10 jeon every Sunday and Wednesday from 7 a.m. to 5 p.m. On June 25, 1908, all royal facilities were put under control of the government office Kungnaebu, which was operated by pro-Japanese Koreans. That office began auctioning off the palace's property to the public in 1910, just before the annexation. A Taehan maeil sinbo article from May 1, 1910 claimed that 4,000 rooms of Gyeongbokgung's buildings were up for auction; this was around two thirds of all the rooms in the palace. The buildings were dismantled and removed from the palace.

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  Children playing with one of the xiezhi (haetae) statues in front of Gwanghwamun (published 1906)
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  Geunjeongjeon (published 1900)
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  Geoncheonggung (published 1900)

Colonial period

Gyeongbokgung, as a symbol of the Korean monarchy's authority, was systematically dismantled by the Japanese colonial government. On May 17, 1911, it was donated by the Kungnaebu to the colonial government. The first major project undertaken by the colonial government was to demolish the East Palace; they argued that section was unnecessary. Historian Shin Hye-won evaluated this as a symbolic dismissal of the continuity of the Korean monarchy, as that area was traditionally where the crown prince would prepare to be the next king. The price of public admission to the palace was halved to a value trivial to most people. In the fall of 1913, the colonial government held a birthday celebration for the recently deceased Emperor Meiji at the palace.

The palace was rapidly modified in anticipation of the September 11 to October 31, 1915 Chōsen Industrial Exhibition, which was mainly held in the southern part of the palace. Buildings were auctioned off in 1914; this resulted in the demolition of 15 buildings and 9 gates by March 1915. One such building, Jaseondang, was reassembled in the private home of Japanese businessman Ōkura Kihachirō in Tokyo. The exhibition, as was common with other colonial exhibitions of the age, was partly intended to highlight the modernity of the colonizer in order to justify the colonization. Shin evaluated the symbolic setting of the exhibition in Gyeongbokgung as amplifying the effect. More exhibitions continued to be held at the palace afterwards, including the 1923 Chōsen Agricultural Exhibition (조선부업품공진회; 朝鮮副業品共進會), 1925 Chōsen Poultry Exhibition (조선가금공진회; 朝鮮家禽共進會), 1926 Chōsen Exhibition (조선박람회; 朝鮮博覽會), 1929 Chōsen Exhibition (조선박람회; 朝鮮博覽會), and 1935 Chōsen Industrial Exhibition (조선산업박람회; 朝鮮産業博覽會).

The residency-general had established a temporary museum in the East Palace in 1909. After the 1915 exhibition, they converted the museum into the permanent Government-General Museum of Chōsen. That museum's building was completed in September 1915, and the museum opened to the public on December 1 of that year. Historian Michael Shin evaluated the museum and Japanese Korean studies research in general as intentionally focused on Korea's ancient history, in order to portray Korea as old and Japan as modern. Only 4.5% of the museum's collection was from the Joseon period; 76% was from before that.

• The 1915 Chōsen Industrial Exhibition
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  Drawing of the palace from an advertisement
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  Main exhibition hall
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  View of the east palace gardens
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  Government-General Museum of Chōsen

The Government-General of Chōsen Building under construction (1920)

On June 25, 1916, the colonial government began symbolically constructing their new headquarters in the palace: the Government-General of Chōsen Building. Construction would last for around 10 years, until October 1, 1926. After the building's completion, contruction began on the grounds around it. A baseball field was constructed to the building's east and a tennis court and 400-meter track to its north. The tennis court would persist until the Fifth Republic of Korea (1981–1988). In order to make the Government-General of Chōsen Building the palace's focal point, Gwanghwamun was moved to the east side of the palace, in violation of the north-south axis that it had previously been placed on. The various construction projects in the palace drew from an eclectic mix of modern Western architectural styles, none of which were Korean. Historian Todd A. Henry evaluated them all as attempting to portray Japan as modernizing and open, and Korea as backward and closed.

Gwanghwamun under construction to accommodate the Seoul Tram (October 3, 1923)

On November 10, 1917, a major fire at Changdeokgung destroyed much of that palace. The colonial government ordered that many of Gyeongbokgung's buildings be moved to Changdeokgung. A plan to demolish the palace's main gate Gwanghwamun became public knowledge in 1921. It was met with opposition from both Koreans and from Japanese Koreanist Yanagi Sōetsu. Yanagi has since been credited with playing a significant role in saving the gate; it was ultimately relocated to the north of Geonchunmun. The tower Seosipjagak was demolished to make way for a tram, which opened on October 2, 1923.

After the 1919 March First Movement protests against Japanese rule, the government-general began allowing some more expression of Korean culture under a series of policies dubbed "cultural rule". As a result of this, and through the initiative of Yanagi, the Chōsen Folk Art Museum was established in the palace in 1924. Shin argued that, while Yanagi was sympathetic to Korea in a number of regards, he and his museum ultimately portrayed Koreans as weak and inferior in an imperialist fashion. For the 1929 Chōsen Exhibition in the palace, a number of exhibits were themed "Korean style", which Henry evaluated as superficial.

In 1929, a road construction project resulted in the walls being altered. In 1938, the final pre-colonial building west and south of Geunjeongjeon, an office building for the Sŏnjŏn'gwan, was demolished.

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  View of the palace from Bugaksan in the north, during the 1929 Chōsen Exhibition
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  Aerial view of the palace (1930)
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  Two women at Gyeonghoeru during the colonial period
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  Ice skating at Gyeonghoeru during the colonial period

Liberation to First Republic

Aerial shot of the palace, weeks after the liberation (September 9, 1945)

Buildings in Gyeongbokgung upon the liberation

Period	Building	Completion date	Notes
Colonial	Government-General of Chōsen Building	1926	Five floors, demolished in 1997
	Government-General of Chōsen Building Annex 1	1938	Four floors
	Government-General of Chōsen Building Annex 3	1938	Four floors
	Government-General of Chōsen Art Museum	1915	Two floors, demolished in 1995
	Government-General Museum of Chōsen and annex building	1915	Originally built as museum warehouse, two-story brick building, currently used as Gyeongbokgung office building
	Government-General of Chōsen Art Museum building (post-1935)	1935	One-story brick building, demolished in 1999
Joseon	Gwanghwamun	1865	Had been moved north of Geonchunmun in 1927
	Geonchunmun	1865
	Sinmumun	1865
	Dongsipjagak	1865	Watchtower that was separated from the palace in 1927
	Geunjeongjeon	1867
	Geunjeongmun	1867
	Corridors for Geunjeongjeon	1867	Halls surrounding Geunjeongjeon, Yungmullu, and Yungmuru
	Sajeongjeon and annexes	1867	Partially used for museum storage.
	Sajeongmun	1867
	Cheonchujeon	1865	Partially used for museum storage.
	Manchunjeon	1866	Partially used for museum storage.
	Sujeongjeon	1867
	Gyeonghoeru	1867
	Jagyeongjeon and annexes	1865	Destroyed in the 1873 and 1876 fires. Rebuilt in 1888.
	Jesuhap	1867	Annex (별당; 別堂) to Jagyeongjeon
	Hamhwadang	1873
	Jipgyeongdang	1873
	Hyangwonjeong	1873
	Jibokjae	1891	Moved to Gyeongbokgung from Changdeokgung
	Hyeopgildang	1891	Moved to Gyeongbokgung from Changdeokgung
	Parujeong	1891
	Gyeongandang	1865	Demolished in 1966 to make way for the National General Museum of Korea (국립종합박물관)
	Hyangdan	1865	Demolished in 1966 to make way for the National General Museum of Korea
	Jeonghundang	1865	Demolished in 1966 to make way for the National General Museum of Korea

Soon after the August 1945 liberation of Korea, the palace continued to be used much as it had been during the colonial period. Voices advocated for the restoration and maintenance of the palace, but these went largely unheeded amidst the chaos of the liberation and division of Korea, as well as the establishment of the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK). In September 1945, the USAMGIK headquartered itself in the Government-General of Chōsen Building (which began to be called the "Central Government Building"; CGB; 중앙청; 中央廳) in the palace. That building continued to be used for important functions through the rest of the 1940s, including for the opening of the 1948 Constituent National Assembly and ceremony for the establishment of South Korea. Public events also continued to be held in the palace; for example, a trade exhibition was held there on April 26, 1946.

The palace's facilities fell into disrepair. Management of the palace was delegated to a new organization called the Office for the Former Royal Family. The first post-liberation maintenance work carried out on the palace was in April 1948. Around the establishment of South Korea later that year, the Ministry of Culture and Education and Gyeongbokgung Palace Management Office (경복궁 관리사무소) were established and management transferred to them. In 1950, a Joseon-style pavilion called Hahyangjeong was constructed to the northeast of Gyeonghoeru.

During the 1950–1953 Korean War, the palace was heavily damaged and even looted. Damage was so significant that the scale of it would not be properly understood even for years afterwards. It was only on December 19, 1952 that the Ministry of Culture and Education established a committee to assess and repair the country's historic assets. Even then, maintenance of historical assets was considered a lesser priority compared to the country's basic social services like primary education. After some repairs to the palace, in part funded by the American-Korean Foundation (한미재단), it was reopened to the public in January 1953. Significant damage to the palace would persist for years afterwards; for example, the CGB remained in poor condition until its 1962–1964 repairs.

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  The surrender of Japan and establishment of the USAMGIK at the CGB (September 9, 1945)
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  The establishment of South Korea at the CGB (August 15, 1948)
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  The palace, viewed from the sky (1951)
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  Gwanghwamun, with wooden portion completely destroyed (1952)

Park Chung Hee era

See also: Third Republic of Korea and Fourth Republic of Korea

After the May 16 coup of 1961, Park Chung Hee seized power in the country. Part of the Capital Defense Command became stationed in the northwest of the palace that year; after staying in tents, 20 temporary buildings for them were established in 1965. The primary goal of the Park administration was economic development, although it engaged in a number of cultural projects to bolster its legitimacy. In January 1962, he promulgated the Cultural Heritage Protection Act of South Korea, which began managing assets like the palace. On January 21, 1963, the palace was made a Historic Site of South Korea. The budget for maintenance was tight, which affected the scale and quality. 31 small-scale maintenance and restoration projects were carried out on the palace from 1961 to 1967. Structures like Gwanghwamun and Yeongchumun were restored, albeit controversially using reinforced concrete and not in their original spots. Such projects slowed beginning in January 1966, as resources were focused on building the National General Museum of Korea (국립종합박물관; the building now houses the National Folk Museum of Korea) in the palace.

A number of newer buildings were constructed in the palace as well. The National General Museum of Korea was constructed between 1966 and 1972. An annex for that building was completed in 1970. In 1979, a modern-style office building called Husaenggwan (후생관) was completed. In 1982, a traditional-style exhibition hall related to the assassination of Empress Myeongseong (을미사변기록화전시각) was established in Geoncheonggung; it later became used by the National Palace Museum of Korea. Other miscellaneous buildings for things like gift shops and restrooms were also established.

Under the Park administration, the palace was used for a number of public events that have seen been viewed critically. In the 1960s, it hosted a pro wrestling event, an American cowboy show, and an ice skating rink. In May 1962, an industrial exhibition was held at the palace to commemorate the one year anniversary of Park's May 16 coup, during which he seized control over the country. On January 12, 1963, The Chosun Ilbo reported on a plan to build a golf course at the palace, which drew public outrage and caused the plan to be scrapped. The size of the palace was also reduced: in 1967, as part of a road expansion project, around 1,490 pyeong (4,900 m²) of the northeastern section of the palace was demolished, and the Capital Defense Command's space on the palace grounds was increased. Restrictions on future such modifications were enacted in the 1970s.

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  Aerial view of the palace (1965)
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  Ice skating at Gyeonghoeru (1965)
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  The reconstructed Gwanghwamun, with Hangul calligraphy by Park Chung Hee (late 1970s)

Recent restoration efforts

The 1980s saw the beginnings of more and higher quality work on preserving South Korean cultural heritage sites. A major architectural survey on Seoul's palaces was conducted from 1983 to 1984. As a result, Geunjeongjeon and Gyeonghoeru were made National Treasures, and Jagyeongjeon, a chimney at Jagyeongjeon, chimneys in Amisan Garden, and Geunjeongmun were made Treasures. On May 22, 1984, a comprehensive management plan for the palaces was approved that Shin evaluated as being the first significant post-liberation effort to restore the pre-colonial dignity of the palaces.

In 1990, the First Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan (경복궁 1차 복원사업) was forwarded to restore the palace to its Gojong-era state in 1888 (which had around 500 buildings). The plan was to be carried out in five overlapping short stages from 1990 to 2009 and three overlapping long stages from 2006 to 2015. Each stage was focused on various regions of the palace, and involved extensive repairs, demolitions, and recreations of pre-colonial buildings. A 1993 survey had 65.7% of respondants approving of the restoration of the palace and 18.2% opposing.

From 1995 to 1996, the CGB was finally demolished after much public debate. Once it was removed, work began to restore the buildings that formerly occupied its spot. In 1995, the former Government-General of Chōsen Art Museum building was demolished and the remains of Gyeongbokgung's former building Jaseondang (which had been sold and moved to Japan) were returned to Korea. In 1996, the Capital Defense Command buildings were removed. The reenactment of the changing of the guard ceremony began in 2002.

• First Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan
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  The CGB being demolished (November 1996)
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  Construction in the palace (August 1999)
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  A reenactment of Sejong's coronation (October 1999)
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  Gwanghwamun being restored (2007)

The First Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan was completed in 2010. It resulted in the restoration of 89 buildings. At that point, the palace had around 25% of its original buildings. Before the completion of the first plan, the Second Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan (경복궁 2차 복원기본계획) was enacted in 2008. The plan called for more restorations from 2011 to 2030 in six stages. It called for the restoration of 331 or 344 former buildings; the number varied depending on whether it could be agreed to demolish the National Palace Museum of Korea (a modern building). The plan was revised in 2011; it called for the demolition of the National Folk Museum of Korea (another modern building).

The Second Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan was significantly revised in 2015. It called for both a longer timespan (until 2045) and around a third the number of restored buildings (80). This was due to considerations of reducing impact of construction on visitors and increasing the time for archaeology and research. The National Palace Museum is not set to be demolished in the plan, but the National Folk Museum is. The plan received minor revisions in 2017 and 2018, with the 2018 plan adding the restoration of the Gwanghwamun Woldae (front plaza). The Sojubang projects were mostly completed in 2015 and likewise for Heungbokjeon in 2019.

In 2020, a significant revision was made. It raised the number of restorations to 90. By the end of the plan, 43% of the palace's original buildings will have been restored. The total estimated implementation cost for that version of the plan was given as ₩293.82 billion (US$248.95 million).

Second Gyeongbokgung Restoration Plan (Revision 4)

Stage	Scope	Details
1	2021–2027 Sojubang and Heungbokjeon areas	Restoration of 30 buildings (21 already completed at time of revision) mainly relating to the life of palace women Restoration of the Gwanghwamun Woldae and surrounding area, and moving the xiezhi (haetae) statue to its original location Maintenance on 16 buildings
2	2023–2034 Joseon government offices area	Demolition of the National Palace Museum Annex and a machinery room for the museum Restoration of 18 buildings mainly relating to the Sejong era of the palace and of the palace streams Maintenance on 23 buildings
3	2030–2038 Seonwonjeon and Mangyeongjeon areas	Demolition of the National Folk Museum Restoration of 20 buildings mainly relating to ceremonies and rites Maintenance on 99 buildings
4	2035–2041 Honjeon area	Restoration of 9 buildings mainly relating to ancestral rites and funerals Maintenance on 33 buildings
5	2039–2045 Owi offices	Demolition of the parking lot, underground storage facility and tunnel for the National Palace Museum Restoration of 13 buildings mainly related to the Owi (part of the military). Includes Seosipjagak. Maintenance on 28 buildings

Layout

Gwanghwamun Gate (광화문)

Heungnyemun Gate (흥례문)

Geunjeongmun Gate (근정문)

Gyeonghoeru Pavilion (경회루) at night

Main gates

• Gwanghwamun (광화문, The Main and South Gate)
• Heungnyemun (흥례문, The Second Inner Gate)
• Geunjeongmun (근정문, The Third Inner Gate)
• Sinmumun (신무문, The North Gate)
• Geonchunmun (건춘문, The East Gate)
• Yeongchumun (영추문, The West Gate)

Oejeon (외전, Outer Court)

• Geunjeongmun (근정문, The Third Inner Gate)
• Geunjeongjeon (근정전, The Throne Hall)
• Sajeongjeon (사정전, The Executive Office)
• Sujeongjeon (수정전)
• Cheonchujeon (천추전)
• Manchunjeon (만춘전)

Naejeon (내전, Inner Court)

• Gangnyeongjeon (강녕전, The King's Quarters)
• Gyotaejeon (교태전, The Queen's Quarters)
• Jagyeongjeon (자경전, The Queen Dowager's Quarters)
• Heungbokjeon (흥복전, King Gojong's reception room)

Donggung (동궁, Palace of the Crown Prince)

• Jaseondang (자선당, The Crown Prince's and Princesses' Quarters)
• Bihyeongak (비현각, The Study of the Crown Prince)

Pavilions

• Gyeonghoeru (경회루, The Royal Banquet Hall)
• Hyangwonjeong (향원정)

Bridges

• Yeongjegyo (영제교)

Having passed through the initial main gate (Gwanghwamun Gate, 광화문) and secondary gate (Heungnyemun Gate, 흥례문), visitors would pass over a small bridge named Yeongjegyo (영제교). Located on the top of the canal right next to the bridge were several imaginary creatures known as Seosu.

• Chwihyanggyo (취향교)

Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon Dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953.

Buildings

Gwanghwamun

Main article: Gwanghwamun

Gwanghwamun (광화문; 光化門) is the main gate of Gyeongbokgung.

Geunjeongjeon

Geunjeongjeon (Throne Hall)

The throne in Geunjeongjeon

Geunjeongjeon (근정전; 勤政殿), also known as Geunjeongjeon Hall, is the throne hall where the king formally granted audiences to his officials, gave declarations of national importance, and greeted foreign envoys and ambassadors during the Joseon period. The building was designated as Korea's National Treasure No. 223 on January 8, 1985. Geunjeongmun (근정문; 勤政門), aligned and located directly to the south of Geunjeongjeon, is the main gate to the courtyard and to Geunjeongjeon. The gate is divided into three separate aisles, and only the king was allowed to walk through the center.

Geunjeongjeon was originally constructed in 1395 during the reign of King Taejo, but was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea. The present building was built in 1867 when Gyeongbokgung was being reconstructed. The name Geunjeongjeon, created by the minister Jeong Do-jeon, means "diligent governance hall".

Rank Stones

Constructed mainly of wood, Geunjeongjeon sits on the center of a large rectangular courtyard, on top of a two-tiered stone platform. This two-tiered platform is lined with detailed balustrades and is decorated with numerous sculptures depicting imaginary and real animals, such as dragons and phoenixes. The stone-paved courtyard is lined with two rows of rank stones, called pumgyeseok (품계석; 品階石), indicating where the court officials are to stand according to their ranks. The whole courtyard is fully enclosed by wooden cloisters.

Sajeongjeon

Sajeongjeon

Sajeongjeon (사정전; 思政殿), also called Sajeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main executive office by the king during the Joseon Dynasty. Located behind Geunjeongjeon Hall, the king carried out his executive duties and held meetings with the top government officials in Sajeongjeon.

Two separate side buildings, Cheonchujeon (천추전; 千秋殿) and Manchunjeon (만춘전; 萬春殿), flank the west and east of Sajeongjeon, and while Sajeongjeon is not equipped with a heating system, these buildings are equipped with Ondols for their use in the colder months.

Gyeonghoeru

Gyeonghoeru (Royal Banquet Hall)

Gyeonghoeru (경회루; 慶會樓), also known as Gyeonghoeru Pavilion, is a hall used to hold important and special state banquets during the Joseon Dynasty. It is registered as Korea's National Treasure No. 224 on January 8, 1985.

The first Gyeonghoeru was constructed in 1412, the 12th year of the reign of King Taejong, but was burned down during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592. The present building was constructed in 1867 (the 4th year of the reign of King Gojong) on an island of an artificial, rectangular lake that is 128 m wide and 113 m across.

Constructed mainly of wood and stone, Gyeonghoeru has a form where the wooden structure of the building sits on top of 48 massive stone pillars, with wooden stairs connecting the second floor to the first floor. The outer perimeters of Gyeonghoeru are supported by square pillars while the inner columns are cylindrical; they were placed thus to represent the idea of Yin & Yang. When Gyeonghoeru was originally built in 1412, these stone pillars were decorated with sculptures depicting dragons rising to the sky, but these details were not reproduced when the building was rebuilt in the 19th century. Three stone bridges connect the building to the palace grounds, and corners of the balustrades around the island are decorated with sculptures depicting twelve Zodiac animals.

Gyeonghoeru used to be represented on the 10,000 won Korean banknotes (1983–2002 Series).

Sujeongjeon

Sujeongjeon

Sujeongjeon (수정전; 修政殿), a building located to the south of Gyeonghoeru, was constructed in 1867 and used by the cabinet of the Joseon dynasty. It is Korea's Treasure No. 1760, where Jiphyeonjeon Hall was located during King Sejong's reign. The historical and architectural value is high because it is the only building that remains in the outer space corresponding to the west side of Geunjeongjeon Hall.

Gangnyeongjeon

Gangnyeongjeon (King's Quarters)

The interior of Gangnyeongjeon

Looking east

Looking west

Gangnyeongjeon (강녕전; 康寧殿), also called Gangnyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the king's main residing quarters. First constructed in 1395, the fourth year of King Taejo, the building contains the king's bed-chamber. Destroyed during the Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592, the building was rebuilt when Gyeongbokgung was reconstructed in 1867, but it was again burned down by a major fire in November 1876 and had to be restored in 1888 following the orders of King Gojong.

However, when Huijeongdang of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government dismembered the building and used its construction materials to restore Huijeongdang in 1920. Current Gangnyeongjeon was built in 1994, meticulously restoring the building to its original specifications and design.

Gangnyeongjeon consists of corridors and fourteen rectangular chambers, each seven chambers located to the left and right side of the building in a layout out like a checkerboard. The king used the central chamber while the court attendants occupied the remaining side chambers to protect, assist, and to receive orders. The building rests on top of a tall stone foundation, and a stone deck or veranda is located in front of the building.

The noted feature of the building is an absence of a top white roof ridge called yongmaru (용마루) in Korean. Many theories exist to explain the absence, of which a prominent one states that, since the king was symbolized as the dragon during the Joseon dynasty, the yongmaru, which contains the letter dragon or yong (龍), cannot rest on top of the king when he is asleep.

Gyotaejeon

Gyotaejeon (Queen's Quarters)

Gyotaejeon (교태전; 交泰殿), also called Gyotaejeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by the queen during the Joseon Dynasty. The building is located behind Gangnyeongjeon, the king's quarters, and contains the queen's bed chamber. It was first constructed in around 1440, the 22nd year of King Sejong the Great.

King Sejong, who was noted to have a frail health later in his reign, decided to carry out his executive duties in Gangnyeongjeon, where his bed-chamber is located, instead of Sajeongjeon. Since this decision meant many government officials routinely needed to visit and intrude Gangnyeongjeon, King Sejong had Gyotaejeon built in consideration of his wife the queen's privacy.

The building was burned down in 1592 when the Japanese invaded Korea, but was reconstructed in 1867. Nevertheless, when Daejojeon of Changdeokgung Palace was burned down by a fire in 1917, the Japanese government disassembled the building and recycled its construction materials to restore Daejojeon. The current building was reconstructed in 1994 according to its original design and specifications. The building, like Gangnyeongjeon, does not have a top roof ridge called yongmaru.

Amisan (아미산; 峨嵋山), a famous garden created from an artificial mound, is located behind Gyotaejeon. Four hexagonal chimneys, constructed around 1869 in orange bricks and decorative roof tiles, adorn Amisan without showing their utilitarian function and are notable examples of formative art created during the Joseon Dynasty. The chimneys were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 811 on January 8, 1985.

Hyangwonjeong

Hyangwonjeong

Hyangwonjeong (향원정; 香遠亭), or Hyangwonjeong Pavilion, is a small, two-story hexagonal pavilion built around 1873 by the order of King Gojong when Geoncheonggung residence was built to the north within Gyeongbokgung.

The pavilion was constructed on an artificial island of a lake named Hyangwonji (향원지; 香遠池), and a bridge named Chwihyanggyo (취향교; 醉香橋) connects it to the palace grounds. The name Hyangwonjeong is loosely translated as "Pavilion of Far-Reaching Fragrance", while Chwihyanggyo is "Bridge Intoxicated with Fragrance".

The bridge Chwihyanggyo was originally located on the north side of the island and was the longest bridge constructed purely of wood during the Joseon dynasty; however, it was destroyed during the Korean War. The bridge was reconstructed in its present form on the south side of the island in 1953, but is now relocated to its original location on the north side.

Jagyeongjeon

Jagyeongjeon (Quarters of the King's mother)

Jagyeongjeon (자경전; 慈慶殿), also called Jagyeongjeon Hall, is a building used as the main residing quarters by Queen Sinjeong (신정왕후; 神貞王后), the mother of King Heonjong. First constructed in 1865, it was burned down twice by a fire but was reconstructed in 1888. Jagyeongjeon is the only royal residing quarters in Gyeongbokgung that survived the demolition campaigns of the Japanese government during the Japanese occupation of Korea.

The chimneys of Jagyeongjeon are decorated with ten signs of longevity to wish for a long life for the late queen, while the west walls of the Jagyeongjeon compound are adorned with floral designs. The protruding southeast part of Jagyeongjeon, named Cheongyeollu (청연루; 清讌樓), is designed to provide a cooler space during the summer, while the northwest part of Jagyeongjeon, named Bogandang (복안당; 福安堂), is designed for the winter months. The eastern part of Jagyeogjeon, named Hyeopgyeongdang (협경당; 協慶堂) and distinguished by the building's lower height, was used by the late queen's assistants.

The building and the decorative walls were registered as Korea's Treasure No. 809 on January 8, 1985.

Jibokjae

Jibokjae (Private Royal Library)

Jibokjae (집옥재; 集玉齋), located next to Geoncheonggung Residence, is a two-story private library used by King Gojong. In 1876, a major fire occurred in Gyeongbokgung, and King Gojong, for a brief period, moved and resided in Changdeokgung Palace. He eventually moved back to Gyeongbokgung in 1888, but he had the pre-existing Jibokjae building disassembled and moved from Changdeokgung to the present location in 1891. Its name, Jibokjae, translates loosely in English as the "Hall of Collecting Jade".

The building uniquely shows heavy influence of Chinese architecture instead of traditional Korean palace architecture. Its side walls were entirely constructed in brick, a method commonly employed by the contemporary Chinese, and its roof formations, interior screens, and columns also show Chinese influences. Its architecture possibly was meant to give it an exotic appearance.

Jibokjae is flanked by Parujeong (팔우정; 八隅亭), an octagonal two-story pavilion, to the left and Hyeopgildang (협길당; 協吉堂) to the right. Parujeong was constructed to store books, while Hyeopgildang served as a part of Jibokjae. Both of the buildings are internally connected to Jibokjae.

Bohyeondang (보현당; 寶賢堂) and Gahoejeong (가회정; 嘉會亭), buildings that also formed a library complex to the south of Jibokjae, were demolished by the Japanese government in the early 20th century.

Taewonjeon

Taewonjeon (태원전; 泰元殿), or Taewonjeon Shrine, is an ancestral shrine originally built in 1868 to house a portrait of King Taejo, the founder of the Joseon dynasty, and to perform rites to the deceased royalties. Completely destroyed by the Japanese government in the early 20th century, the shrine was accurately restored to its former design in 2005.

Donggung

Donggung

Donggung (동궁; 東宮), located south of the Hyangwonjeong pavilion, were the living quarters for the crown prince and his wife. The four main buildings of the compound were Jaseondang and Bihyeongak, Chunbang (the lecture hall, where the prince received the preparatory education in order to become a future monarch), as well as Gyebang (the security building).

In the 19th century, the future Emperor Sunjong lived in the compound. Donggung was razed to the ground during the Japanese occupation. The restoration work started in 1999 but only Jaseondang and Bihyeongak were restored. In 2020, the Royal Palaces and Tombs Center (hereinafter RPTC) of the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA) announced its plans to restore the Donggung area to its original layout. The restoration work of the remaining buildings began in March 2020 and was planned to be completed in late January 2023.

Geoncheonggung

Geoncheonggung

Geoncheonggung (건청궁; 乾淸宮), also known as Geoncheonggung Residence, was a private royal residence built by King Gojong within the palace grounds in 1873.

King Gojong resided in Geoncheonggung from 1888 and the residence was continuously expanded, but on October 8, 1895, Empress Myeongseong, the wife of King Gojong, was brutally assassinated by the Japanese agents at the residence. Her body was burned and buried near the residence.

Haunted by the experiences of the incident, the king left the palace in January 1896 and never again returned to the residence. Demolished completely by the Japanese government in 1909, the residence was accurately reconstructed to its former design and opened to the public in 2007.

Governor-General's Residence (dismantled)

The back garden of Gyeongbokgung used to contain the main part of the Japanese Governor-General's residence, that was built in the early 20th century during the Japanese occupation. With the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, President Syngman Rhee used it as his office and residence. In 1993, after President Kim Young-sam's civilian administration was launched, the Japanese Governor-General's residence in the Cheongwadae compound was dismantled to remove a major symbol of the Japanese colonialism.

Tourism

In 2011 a survey was conducted by the Seoul Development Institute, which included 800 residents and 103 urban planners and architects. 39 percent of residents voted the palace as the most scenic location in Seoul, following Namsan and Han River in the top spots.

As of April 2024, It is open from 9 am to 5 pm in January, February, November, and December, from 10 am to 6 pm in March, April, May, September, and October, and from 9 am to 6:30 pm in June, July, and August.

Events

In a poll of nearly 2,000 foreign visitors, conducted by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in November 2011, stated that watching the changing of the guards at the main gate Gwanghwamun is their third favorite activity in Seoul. The royal changing of the guard ceremony is held in front of the main gate every hour from 10:00 to 15:00. There are many tourists wearing hanbok while visiting Gyeongbokgung and there are also a number of rental shops nearby selling hanbok and other traditional Korean clothing.

At Gyeongbokgung, in a program called "Suragan Tasting Sympathy", visitors can experience royal food and watch traditional performances.

• Changing of the Royal Guard
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On selected days from April to October, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 10PM. 4,500 tickets are offered each session which could be reserved online or purchased on-site (ID required). However, on-site tickets are available only for foreigners and senior citizens age 65 and over, for which 500 and 50 tickets are allocated respectively. In 2019, Gyeongbokgung held 71 nighttime viewing sessions.

From September 1, 2022 to November 6, 2022, Gyeongbokgung offers special 'nighttime viewing' sessions from 7PM to 9:30PM The admission fee is 3,000 won. Online reservations and on-site reservations are available, and up to two tickets are available per person.

• Palace at night
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Changing of the royal guard

During the Joseon Dynasty, royal guards were in charge of guarding and patrolling the gates of the capital and royal palaces. They played roles by dividing the day and night shifts. Each shift in working hours took place.

Today, the changing ceremony of the royal guard (Korean: 수문장 교대의식) in front of Gwanghwamun is recreated just like the Joseon Dynasty. It takes place twice a day.

Access

Re-enactments of Korean royal guard at Gyeongbokgung, Seoul, South Korea

Today, Gyeongbokgung is open to the public and houses the National Folk Museum of Korea, the National Palace Museum of Korea, and traditional Korean gardens.

Transportation

Gyeongbokgung entry is located 22 Sajik-ro, Jongno-gu. The nearest subway station is

• Gyeongbokgung Station (Station #327 on Line 3).

There has been off and on talk to extending the Shinbundang Line near the palace including during a March 2012 campaign promise by Hong Sa-duk to expand the line near Gyeongbokgung.

Entrance Fee

	individual	group
age 19~64	3,000 won	2,400 won (10 people or more)
age 7~18	1,500 won	1,200 won (10 people or more )
free	Children (Ages 6 and under), Ages 65 and above Last Wednesdays of a month Wearing Hanbok

Surrounding area

Tourist attractions

• Gyeonghuigung
• National Folk Museum of Korea
• National Palace Museum of Korea
• Bukchon Hanok Village
• Blue House
• Gwanghwamun Plaza

Temples

• Jogyesa

Stations

• Gyeongbokgung station (Seoul Subway Line 3)

See also

• Korean architecture
• History of Korea
• Imperial City of Huế
• Forbidden City
• Potala Palace
• Manwoldae

References

Sources

In Korean

• 경복궁 2차: 복원기본계획 조정용역 (in Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration Royal Palaces and Tombs Center. December 2020.
• 경복궁 변천사 (上) (in Korean). Cultural Heritage Administration. August 2007.
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  • 이규철. "고종 중건과 대한제국 말기까지의 변화 고찰". In Cultural Heritage Administration (2007).
  • 신혜원 (2007a). "일제시대의 변화 고찰". In Cultural Heritage Administration (2007).
  • 신혜원 (2007b). "1945년 이후의 경복궁". In Cultural Heritage Administration (2007).
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  • 배우성. "궁궐을 세우기 위해서 철거를 한다고? 영건의 아이러니!". In Seoul Historiography Institute (2019).
  • 유승희. "과연 서민들이 자식처럼 달려와 궁궐을 지었을까?". In Seoul Historiography Institute (2019).
  • 김창수. "경복궁 공사의 지연, 화마와 서양오랑캐의 습격". In Seoul Historiography Institute (2019).
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• 서울 2천년사 [Seoul: A 2,000-Year History] (in Korean). Vol. 11. 조선 건국과 한양 천도. Seoul Historiography Institute. December 20, 2013. ISBN 9788994033549.
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• 서울 역사 답사기 6: 종묘사직, 궁궐, 성균관 (in Korean). Seoul: Seoul Historiography Institute. 2022-11-14. ISBN 979-11-6071-148-6.
  • 홍순민. "나라의 사당 종묘, 안녕과 풍요를 비는 제단 사직". In Seoul Historiography Institute (2022a).
  • 김웅호. "조선왕조를 대표하는 공간". In Seoul Historiography Institute (2022a).
• 이미지로 읽는 근대 서울 [Reading Modern Seoul Through Images] (in Korean). Vol. 1. 궁궐의 훼철과 박람회. Seoul Historiography Institute. October 30, 2022. ISBN 9791160711462.
• Park, Sung-Jin; Woo, Don-Son (May 2007). "일제강점기 경복궁 전각의 훼철과 이건" [The Disposal and Removal of the Gyeongbokgung Palace's Buildings during the Japanese Ruling Era]. 대한건축학회 논문집 - 계획계 (in Korean). 23 (5): 133–140. ISSN 1226-9093 – via DBpia.
• Yoo, Jaebin (2024-09-30). "영조대 경복궁 터에서 행한 행사와 궁중 회화" [Royal Ceremonies at Kyŏngbok Palace During the Reign of King Yŏngjo and Their Representations in Court Ceremony Paintings]. Korean Journal of Art History (in Korean). 323: 97–128. doi:10.31065/kjah.323.202409.004. ISSN 1225-2565.

In English

• Choi, Jong‐Deok (2010-04-01). "The palace, the city and the past: controversies surrounding the rebuilding of the Gyeongbok Palace in Seoul, 1990–2010". Planning Perspectives. 25 (2): 193–213. doi:10.1080/02665431003613014. ISSN 0266-5433.
• Chun, Kyung Hyo (March 2023). "Reconstruction of Memory and Reinterpretation of Tradition at Royal Palaces in Seoul". Korea Journal (in Korean). 63 (1): 208–242. ISSN 0023-3900.
• Han, Jung-Sun (2014-04-13). "Japan in the public culture of South Korea, 1945–2000s: The making and remaking of colonial sites and memories". Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 12 (15): 1–19.
• Henry, Todd A. (2014). Assimilating Seoul: Japanese Rule and the Politics of Public Space in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95841-8.
• Kim, Bue-Dyel (2023-09-03). "The nineteenth-century reconstruction of Gyeonghoeru Pavilion in Gyeongbokgung Palace, Korea". Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering. 22 (5): 2523–2540. doi:10.1080/13467581.2022.2160207. ISSN 1346-7581.
• Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00024-8.
• Kim, Michael (2010-12-01). "Collective Memory and Commemorative Space: Reflections on Korean Modernity and the Kyŏngbok Palace Reconstruction 1865–2010". International Area Review. 13 (4): 75–95. doi:10.1177/223386591001300404. ISSN 1226-7031.
• Oh, Se-Mi (2023). City of Sediments: A History of Seoul in the Age of Colonialism. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3553-1.
• Shin, Michael (2018-04-17). Korean National Identity under Japanese Colonial Rule: Yi Gwangsu and the March First Movement of 1919. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-83064-0.

External links

• Media related to Gyeongbokgung (category) at Wikimedia Commons
• Official website (in English)